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behavior modification, environmental management, and sometimes psychoactive medications (e.g., fluoxetine, clomipramine, trazodone).
"Cooperative care" is the new gold standard. Instead of scruffing a cat (which triggers a freeze response rooted in predator-prey dynamics), vets use "purrito" wrapping and gentle restraint. Instead of forcing a dog into a lateral recumbency, they use "distraction with a food puzzle" for vaccinations.
Medications like fluoxetine are used long-term for separation anxiety, urine marking, and compulsive disorders.